Нарушения прав человека провоцируют эскалацию вооруженных конфликтов и препятствуют достижению устойчивого мира

Introduction There is increasing evidence in academic literature and from experiences in conflict-affected societies that human rights violations contribute significantly to the outbreak and escalation of violent conflict. In many situations, such violations are also consequences of armed conflict, as combatants and warlords commit atrocities and crimes against humanity during hostilities. Some scholars argue that efforts by human rights advocates to pursue justice and accountability may occasionally conflict with the objectives of conflict resolution practitioners who prioritise negotiated settlements and immediate peace. However, others contend that sustainable peace cannot exist where human rights are violated, just as human rights cannot be fully enjoyed in an environment characterised by violence and insecurity. Human rights require peace for their enjoyment, and peace depends on respect for human rights. Consequently, human rights, conflict, and peace are deeply interconnected and continuously influence one another. This article explores the complex relationship among these three concepts. Human Rights: A Brief Introduction The establishment of the United Nations in 1945 marked a significant milestone in the global promotion and protection of human rights. One of the fundamental objectives of the United Nations became the promotion of “respect for human rights and for fundamental freedoms for all without distinction as to race, sex, language, or religion.” The term “human rights,” as contained in the United Nations Charter, was authoritatively elaborated through the adoption of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights (UDHR) in 1948 (Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2016). Under the leadership of distinguished figures such as Eleanor Roosevelt, René Cassin, and Charles Malik, the United Nations Commission on Human Rights successfully drafted the UDHR within two years. The Declaration was adopted by the United Nations General Assembly on 10 December 1948. It outlines a comprehensive range of civil, political, economic, social, and cultural rights, while also affirming the right of every individual to a social and international order in which these rights and freedoms can be fully realised (Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2016). Understanding Human Rights Human rights are moral claims that belong inherently and inalienably to all people simply by virtue of being human, regardless of race, ethnicity, religion, gender, place of birth, social status, or cultural background. They are often referred to as fundamental rights, basic rights, natural rights, inherent rights, or birth rights (Inter-Parliamentary Union, 2016). Different scholars and institutions have defined human rights in various ways. Broadly, they are understood as rights that every person possesses equally because of their humanity. They are rooted in human dignity and human nature. The Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights (OHCHR, 1997) describes human rights as rights inherent to all human beings. These rights are recognised through international norms and agreements that establish standards of conduct for states. Human rights differ from civil liberties, which are legal freedoms created and enforced by individual states within their jurisdictions (OHCHR, 2016). Furthermore, human rights regulate the relationship between individuals and structures of power, particularly the state (OHCHR, 2016). They place limits on state authority while simultaneously requiring governments to take positive measures to enable people to enjoy their rights fully. Donnelly (2013) describes human rights as “the rights of man,” meaning rights that belong to individuals simply because they are human. He notes that the concept consists of two important elements: “human” and “rights.” The term “right” carries both the meaning of rectitude and entitlement. While the former speaks of moral correctness, in the latter sense, human rights refer to legitimate claims that individuals possess. Similarly, Marks (2017) defines human rights as a set of norms governing the treatment of individuals and groups by states and non-state actors on the basis of ethical principles regarding what society considers fundamental to a decent life. For this article, human rights are understood as just treatment and entitlements owed to every human being, which institutions and societies must respect and uphold to foster harmonious relationships among individuals and communities. Understanding Conflict According to Dr. Victor Doke, a researcher, lecturer, and security expert at the Kofi Annan International Peacekeeping Training Centre, conflict is a struggle or contest that occurs within individuals or between individuals and groups whose needs, interests, values, beliefs, ideas, or goals are incompatible. Glorier (2025) defines conflict as a misunderstanding or disagreement stemming from differences in beliefs, opinions, and procedural norms. Conflict emerges when two or more individuals or groups possess, or perceive themselves to possess, incompatible goals. At its core, conflict represents competition over the satisfaction of interests. Understanding Peace Peace is often narrowly defined as the absence of war or violence. However, peace extends far beyond the mere absence of armed confrontation. It includes the presence of conditions that allow individuals and societies to flourish. A peaceful society is characterised by justice, equity, inclusion, and opportunities for human development. It involves the removal of social, economic, and political barriers that prevent individuals from achieving their full potential. In such an environment, peace becomes a lived reality, creating conditions where development and human well-being can thrive naturally. The Relationship Between Human Rights and Conflict Human Rights Violations as Causes of Violent Conflict Mertus and Helsing (2006) argue that when human rights violations manifest through insecurity, violence, and the failure to satisfy basic human needs, they become both causes and symptoms of violent conflict. Such violations deprive people of essential needs while perpetuating social, political, and economic inequalities. Research by Gurr (1993), Stewart (2008), and Cederman et al. (2013) demonstrates that human rights violations often create horizontal inequalities across political, economic, and social spheres. When these inequalities coincide with ethnic or cultural divisions, they intensify grievances and increase the likelihood of violent political conflict. Such conflicts frequently emerge from demands for self-determination, equitable access to resources, and resistance against discrimination. Human rights abuses often generate cycles of fear, exclusion, and dehumanisation. Across many African and developing countries, the denial of rights has been a significant driver of conflict. At the same time, efforts to secure those rights can also trigger confrontation where governments fail to provide peaceful channels for addressing grievances. According to Mertus and Helsing (2006), when states fail to protect basic rights or establish mechanisms for peaceful dispute resolution, affected groups may resort to force to pursue their demands. Human rights are inherent and universal. Therefore, any denial of these rights by state or non-state actors constitutes a violation. When such violations occur on a large scale, they amount to human rights abuses (Thoms and Ron, 2007). Human Rights Violations as Drivers of Conflict Escalation In protracted conflicts, continued violations of human rights can deepen divisions and fuel hostility among opposing groups. Persistent abuses reinforce grievances and resentment, creating opportunities for political elites and armed groups to manipulate narratives and mobilise communities along “us versus them” lines (Sriram et al., 2017). The conflict in Sudan illustrates this dynamic. The war resulted in the deaths of over two million people and displaced approximately four million individuals from a national population of 38 million. The extensive human suffering and violations contributed significantly to the prolongation of the conflict, which eventually culminated in the independence of South Sudan in 2011 (ACHPR, 2019). Human Rights Violations as Consequences of Violent Conflict Human rights violations are not only causes of conflict but also outcomes of violent conflict. Regardless of their origins, armed conflicts frequently result in the killing, displacement, and suffering of civilians, alongside widespread and systematic abuses of human rights (Sriram et al., 2017). Mertus and Helsing (2006) highlight several key dimensions of this relationship. They note that unresolved human rights abuses can undermine reconciliation and conflict resolution efforts. Mechanisms such as truth and reconciliation commissions often facilitate societal healing more effectively than purely judicial processes. They also observe that refugee movements can destabilise neighbouring regions and contribute to further rights violations. Additionally, efforts to protect human rights during peace negotiations may sometimes complicate conflict resolution strategies. Modern conflicts increasingly target civilians directly. Common abuses include torture, enforced disappearances, destruction of infrastructure, loss of livelihoods, and denial of essential services. In many cases, these violations amount to war crimes, crimes against humanity, or genocide (Sriram et al., 2017). Historical examples include the 1994 Genocide against the Tutsi in Rwanda and the prolonged conflicts in Angola and Sudan. Similarly, the Revolutionary United Front (RUF) under Foday Sankoh in Sierra Leone employed systematic human rights abuses as a strategy of warfare. These included amputations, mutilations, rape, forced displacement, and ethnic persecution designed to terrorise civilian populations. The Relationship Between Human Rights and Peace Perceived Tensions Between Human Rights and Peace At a superficial level, some observers perceive tension between the pursuit of human rights and the pursuit of peace. It is sometimes argued that insisting on accountability for past abuses may hinder peace negotiations or prolong conflicts (Jim Ife, 2007). The case of East Timor illustrates this argument. Some suggested that lasting peace with Indonesia could only be achieved if certain human rights violations committed between 1975 and 1999 were overlooked and perpetrators escaped accountability. Similar arguments have been made in relation to Bosnia, Kosovo, Rwanda, Burma, and other contexts, where it has been suggested that justice should be sacrificed in favour of peace (Jim Ife, 2007). Likewise, when peace is narrowly interpreted as security, governments may justify restrictions on human rights in the name of maintaining stability. Such reasoning has often appeared in the rhetoric surrounding the global “war on terror.” From this perspective, human rights and peace are portrayed as competing objectives (Jim Ife, 2007). Human Rights and Peace as Mutually Reinforcing Goals Jim Ife (2007) challenges the notion that peace and human rights are inherently in conflict. He argues that this perception stems from incomplete understandings of both concepts. In reality, peace and human rights are mutually dependent and reinforcing. Peace cannot be achieved where human rights are systematically violated. A society cannot genuinely be considered peaceful if its people suffer oppression, discrimination, or structural violence. Such conditions undermine social harmony and create the foundations for future conflict. Likewise, human rights cannot be fully realised in the absence of peace. War itself constitutes a major violation of human rights, affecting both combatants and civilians. Armed conflict often gives rise to additional abuses, including censorship, arbitrary detention, torture, sexual violence, and extrajudicial killings. History has repeatedly demonstrated how appeals to national security during wartime can erode human rights protections. The expansion of anti-terror legislation in many countries illustrates how human rights guarantees may be weakened when security concerns dominate public policy. According to Ife (2007), war and human rights violations frequently occur together, while peace and human rights likewise belong together. Neither can be fully achieved without the other. Efforts to promote peace, therefore, contribute to the advancement of human rights, just as efforts to protect human rights help create conditions for lasting peace. The Interconnectivity of Human Rights, Conflict, and Peace The discussion above demonstrates the intricate relationship among human rights, conflict, and peace. Human rights violations often create conditions that give rise to violent conflict. Individuals and communities who experience persistent oppression, exclusion, or discrimination may eventually resort to violence in pursuit of justice and recognition. Violent conflict, in turn, intensifies human rights abuses. Lives are lost, communities are displaced, women and girls become vulnerable to sexual violence, and children may be exploited, trafficked, or recruited into armed groups. Conversely, respect for human rights promotes peaceful coexistence and strengthens social cohesion. When rights are protected, individuals and groups are more likely to engage constructively and resolve disputes peacefully. Peace, therefore, provides the environment necessary for the enjoyment of human rights, while human rights create the conditions necessary for sustainable peace. In essence, peace cannot be achieved without the protection and realisation of human rights, and human rights cannot be fully realised in the absence of peace. A society where rights are routinely violated cannot truly be described as peaceful, just as a society engulfed by violence cannot effectively guarantee human rights. Donnelly (2007) argues that by safeguarding life, liberty, and security, human rights protect individuals from abuse by more powerful actors. Respect for human rights, therefore, contributes significantly to peace, stability, and social cohesion. Adherence to human rights principles can prevent conflicts from emerging and serve as an important early warning mechanism. Furthermore, Manikkalingam (2006) contends that human rights play a crucial role in resolving violent conflicts because they contribute to the long-term sustainability of peace agreements. Conclusion It can therefore be concluded that political settlements grounded in human rights values are more likely to endure and foster sustainable peace. Human rights, conflict, and peace are not separate concepts operating independently of one another; rather, they are interconnected realities that continually shape the conditions of human existence. Promoting and protecting human rights remains one of the most effective pathways to preventing conflict and achieving lasting peace. REFERENCES Donnelly, J. (2007). The relative universality of human rights. Human Right Quarterly, 29 (2), 281-306. Donnelly, J. (2013). Universal human rights in theory and practice. 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